Eyewitness Testimony Essay

Eyewitness Testimony Essay The use of eyewitness testimony is infamously a primary source of evidence used within the judicial system around the world; however its use has raised various questions as to its reliability and validity especially within court cases. This essay explored first of all, the biological factors of memory and recollection of memories within the human brain. Memories are believed to be stored and processed within the hippocampus part of the brain where it goes through the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968). This is where danger of the reliability of memory occurs. It was argued that eyewitness testimony is a reliable form of evidence especially with its validity in terms of the events leading up to the use of EWT; what is deemed important information is believed to be remembered more clearly. Sigmund Freud (1920) suggested that memories can only be retrieved by encouraging remembering past episodes and re-instating these past memories into their consciousness. Psychologists N ibett and Ross (1980) quoted that the reason why eyewitness testimony is persuasive is that it influences the jury on a deeper level. However, eyewitness testimony posed more disadvantages than advantages with the various factors that affect it such as weapons focus in incidents involving weapons which cause distractions and loss of memories. The primary psychologist that tested the use of memory was Elizabeth Loftus who conducted various experiment to test this, such as the Automobile Destruction experiment in the 1970s. After having collated all the arguments together, it was suggested that improvements must be made in order to improve the quality of eyewitness testimony; these included the legal system and police forces involvement in collating information as quickly as possible. The most imperative form of evidence when investigating a crime is the honesty of witnesses on trial, the application of eyewitness testimony. Though the use of eyewitness testimony by juries is considered most valuable, the question of fallibility of witness statements poses various problems and issues. Eyewitness testimony has been a thriving aspect of the Criminal Justice System, an incredible amount of research into this element of cognitive psychology questions the reliability of peoples memory especially using it as evidence to determine the outcome of the trial and convictions. Research into the reliability of evidence, often referred to as witness psychology is renowned as being the longest established area of law and psychology, dating back to the beginning of the 20th century.  [1]   The area of eyewitness testimony has always posed a problem with reliability and the effectiveness of human memory. Human memory is described by cognitive psychologists Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)  [2]  as a three stage theory in which memory is modelled in, this memory stage model is called the Multi-Store Model. The Multi-store model theory consists of the memory being divided into three stages, the first stage being the sensory store, the second stage is the short term memory (working memory) and the third being long term memory. The transfer of information from one store to another is controlled by the process of attention and rehearsal of memories. One of the most critical assumptions made by cognitive psychologists is that the human mind has a limited capacity for processing information. Therefore, any external information that the environment consists of is often very difficult for the human mind to assimilate and process; so people are selective about what information is to be retrieved and this is otherwise known as attention, where some information is assimilated while other pieces are ignored. The first stage of the multi-store model, the sensory store, is where the information from the senses (iconic, echoic, tactile, olfactory and gustatory), is transferred into but this is only for a very short period of time. The initial information retrieved by the senses is then transferred into the short term memory store; this is transferred through attention given to the information transferred from the senses involved. When the information has been transferred into the short-term memory store, this is the store concerned with forgetting information and this information is ultimately lost entirely. Therefore, for information to be remained in the memory, from the short term store into the long term store, the information must be rehearsed. Rehearsal is the cycling of information through the memory, this rehearsal of memory can be carried out in two different methods. Therefore this essay will investigate whether the application of eyewitness testimony statements is a reliable form of evidence to be used by the judicial system. Furthermore, this essay will argue whether eyewitness testimony is ideal to use as one of the most important pieces of evidence to use or whether the application of eyewitness testimony is fallible. After comparing for and against the reliability of eyewitness accounts, an evaluation will be drawn over how eyewitness testimony can be improved to an extent where it can be further accurate. This essay will explore the elements of eyewitness testimony and how these factors can determine whether an eyewitness account is accurate. These elements include the effect of weapon focus on witness memory, how leading questions can manipulate witness statements and recollection of memory, reconstructive errors of memory and the application of psychological experiments when exploring the function of these elements on the human memory. Th e application of the eyewitness testimony includes multiple formal questioning sessions with witnesses on trial, taking statements of the events witnessed and witnesses appearing in court with the jury. The issue of integrity when applying eyewitness testimony accounts is delegated to the jury, who are assigned the role of determining the judgement of whether the eyewitness statements are fallible or reliable  [3]  . The use of eyewitness testimony has a profound and compelling effect on the outcome of a trial and conviction, and this is why an accurate eyewitness testimony is needed in order to gain justice. The Aspects of Eyewitness Testimony As a consequence of the limitations of information processing in the human mind, witness statements need to be reviewed for accuracy and if any external factors of either the environment or the function of memory may have affected the outcome of the witness account  [4]  . Quite often, when the memory cannot recall the entire incident or situation, it may result in the unknown areas being replaced by events that may never have took place in reality but the mind may perceive as a potential occurrence and therefore causes fallibility in the eyewitness testimony. In essence, the memory may fill in gaps where it fails to recall what may have happened  [5]  . Many factors affect eyewitness memories which are illustrated below: Interference of Memory Processing: The period of time that has lapsed between the witnessing of the incident and the questioning of the eyewitness can determine the amount of information that the witness can recall. On the other hand, interference which is the loss of old stimuli as a result of new information can also subsequently reduce the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.  [6]   Leading Questions in Witness Interviews: A leading question in its form or content, suggests to the witness being interviewed what answer is desired or leads them to the desired answer. Some questions can often be made more suggestive than others and these questions the legal concept of a leading question. The main pioneer for investigating the consequences of particular leading questions was Elizabeth F. Loftus in 1974.  [7]   Schemas: The human mind has evolved its memory capacity and the ability to remember certain aspects by organising information into categories, otherwise known as schemas  [8]  . Schemas help organise memories that can consist of familiar people, objects and situations and allow people to understand and act appropriately to whatever is encountered. Arousal, Anxiety and Violence Distraction: Quite often, cognitive psychologists have questioned the poor recall of eyewitness accounts is primarily a result of where their attention is focused upon. A possible reason for arousal, anxiety and violence distraction could be that a violent incident, with the use of weapons, draws the focus of the witnesss attention away from who is causing this anxiety, which results in little or no processing of other information.  [9]   Weapon Focus: When a witness views a crime in which a weapon is used as a method of violence and distraction, the weapon achieves its purpose in distracting the attention of those witnessing the crime. The distraction affects the witnesss attention due to the potential threat of violence9. External Influences: Quite often, external influences can affect the accuracy of eyewitness accounts, especially if the media has been influencing the events that have taken place. The witness may re-interpret their witness statements to match what the media has claimed may have existed or happened. Apart from the media, other external influences may include other witness accounts of what happened and/or the type of environment that the situation may have occurred in, e.g. in darkness, low-lit room etc. Conformity: Through the questioning process that witnesses must endure, group questioning in particular, gives into reason the reliability of witness recollections as they may conform in order to fit each others interpretation of what happened. Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony The use of eyewitness testimony has provided crucial evidence that can often lead to the identification and arrest of a criminal suspect or a hazardous event can be avoided. Eyewitness testimony impacts strongly upon the trial process and the verdicts that are given by the jury are quite often influenced heavily by eyewitness accounts. Stern and Dunning, 1994  [10]  quoted that eyewitness testimony is perhaps the most compelling types of evidence presented to police investigations and criminal trials. Although the human memory and its information processing ability, has substantial amounts of limitations that can lead to invalidity and inaccuracy, it does however, demonstrate a unique ability to process information where the acquired stimulus information is stored. The human mind can potentially hold millions of pieces of information, though not all at once, which when acquired by the brain can be reinstated and remembered. The memories that the mind deems as important for growth and use consistently is life are episonic which represents the episode of the memory where as certain skill or piece of information; semantic which identifies what that piece of information consists of and what it is and finally procedural which processes who that information is to be used or handled. For example, teaching a child how to read a book at a particular age is episonic, knowing what a book is, is semantic and how to read the words in a book would be procedural.  [11]   The process of information being transferred from the short term memory into the long term memory was an experiment conducted by psychologists Welch and Burnett in 1924. The experiment was to test the theory of the serial position curve where it consisted of the subjects being presented with a list of 16 words in which they had to recall in order. The results of this experiment, illustrated the serial position curve in which the recollection of words and the results of the experiment were graphed and this illustrated a curve effect were the last recalled words were remembered best whereas the words in the middle of the recall were remembered poorly. Cognitive psychologist, Sigmund Freud believed that memories were allocated in the brain  [12]  . Freud referred to these memories as true memories and described that they lay deep in the unconscious element of the brain, where they lay undisturbed as a factor of surface mental activity. Freud insisted that these memories were never lost or forgotten as they are only inaccessible and latent, having become a part of the unconscious  [13]  . For these memories to be accessed, Freud promoted the technique free association. By encouraging witnesses to reminisce about past episodes that have occurred within their lives, Freud insinuated that they could reinstate long-forgotten yet important memories from their past into their consciousness. However, it can be argued that the true memories that Freud insisted exist in the human sub-conscious are in fact potential complex blendings of both fact and fiction. Memory is an extremely fragile aspect of the human mind that can potentially be supplemented, altered and reconstructed by external stimuli that can question an event that may never have occurred. However, it is argued that the human mind is capable of remembering significant pieces of information that is considered vital and important. This is considered one of the key factors in which juries do consider eyewitness testimony accounts as a vital piece of evidence. Psychologists Nibett and Ross, 1980 quoted that the reason why eyewitness testimony is persuasive is that vivid testimonies have a strong impact on observers so this conclusively means that they are easier to remember especially upon the jury  [14]  . Though the potential invalidity of eyewitness accounts is extensive, error made in witness accounts are extraneous when the observers are able to distinguish between accurate and inaccurate witnesses  [15]  . However, there may be a possibility that the eyewitness account is accurate but leading questions by the criminal investigation team may provoke the memory to be changed to fit the question or the most relevant and fitting answer  [16]  . The Unreliability of Eyewitness Testimony The malleability of eyewitness accounts demonstrates the excessive inaccuracy of it being used as a vital evidential piece in the courts and criminal justice system. Many hypotheses have been established that suggest reasons for the valued use of eyewitness testimony. Saunders et al believe that jurors tend to place too much faith in eyewitness testimonies; however the problem lies with whether eyewitness testimony is a reliable source of evidence to use  [17]  . The inaccuracy of witness accounts is demonstrated by the various aspects that intercept with each other and substantiate hesitation for its use as evidence. The use of leading questions can quite often alter information/intelligence or can quite often misinterpreted accounts to match the information that the witness has been presented with. An experiment conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Parmer illustrates the interaction between language and memory in 1974  [18]  . The reconstruction of an automobile destruction consisted of two experiments in which subjects were shown films of automobile accidents. After the observation, the subjects were then asked questions about the events that occurred in the films; How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? The use of the word smash demonstrated higher estimations in the speed of the car as opposed to other verbs used in place of smash such as collided, bumped, contacted and hit. When the experiment was repeated a week later, the subjects who received the word smashed were more likely to agree to the question asked Did you see any broken glass? even though there was n o recollection of broken glass within the video. These results highlight the theory that the questions asked in relation to an event can result in a reconstruction of a witnesss memory of that event. Though witness memory is quite often inaccurate in that they fail to distinguish the events that had occurred, quite often, the human memory can remember erroneous events and details that may be introduced by third party interference. In the 1970s, Elizabeth Loftus conducted an experiment to demonstrate how third party interference can invalidate witness accounts by introducing false facts. Subjects were shown a slideshow of a car at an intersection with either a yield sign or a stop sign. The experimenter then asked the participants questions which falsely used the word stop sign instead of yield sign which is what was actually shown in the slideshow. The results indicated that subjects remembered seeing the false image; the introduction of false cues altered the memory of the participants in the experiment. Bartlett conducted an experiment in which he read a story The war of the ghosts out loud to a group of participants where he concluded that participants attempted to fit the story into their western schemas and as a result, distorted it during recall  [19]  . This showed that they were not recalling the information exactly as it had been presented to them, but were making assumptions at the story, based on their own understanding. This correlates with what a witness may assume a criminal or crime scene may look like and therefore use this to describe the suspected. Schemas are an effective method of processing and encoding information  [20]  . The idea of schemas were originally established by Frederick Bartlett in the 1930s which involved a large number studies in which he showed ways in which participants made sense of whatever they were shown affects the way they recall it later  [21]  . For example, in one of his studies, Bartlett showed participants unfamiliar line d rawings and instructed them to memorise it. Bartlett then asked his participants to talk aloud at the same time as memorising the picture. He found that different participants made sense of the figures in different ways. Later in the experiment, the participants were asked to draw the figures as they remembered them and Bartlett discovered that the schemas which they established during their initial encoding influenced their recall. Therefore, schemas may influence what witnesses may define what a criminal looks like or behaves like and this may influence their account of events. Through the questioning process that witnesses must endure, witnesses can either be questioned on a one-to-one basis where the interviewer questions the witness independently or witnesses can be questioned as a group if the incident has been witnesses by multiple people. In particular, group questioning which gives into reason the reliability of witness recollections as they may conform in order to fit each others interpretation of what happened. This conformity can purposely invalidate information as the witness does not want to be isolated from the events that the other witnesss describe as having happened. This subjective information again affects the testimony because false information is being interpreted is invalid due to conformity of information. The weapons focus effect  [22]  perceives to be a result of the witnesss attention being predominantly directed towards the weapon, resulting in diversion of attention away from the situational aspects and the criminal suspect. When a witness views a crime in which a weapon is used as a method of violence and distraction, the weapon achieves its purpose in distracting the attention of those witnessing the crime. The distraction affects the witnesss attention due to the potential threat of violence. Although an incident has occurred, the attention of the witness is primarily upon the weapon so they are not observing the rest of the incident or the person who is posing the threat and this causes the witness to have lack of information about the incident. This area of eyewitness psychology is known as weapon focus; unfortunately this distraction results in a very poor eyewitness testimony as the witness is unable to recall events and descriptions. Unfortunately, most crimes involve the use of a weapon as a vulnerability tool, which in essence causes the stress and anxiety levels of the witness to rise and therefore will fail to encode and remember vital information. Eyewitness inaccuracy may also be a result of errors that occur within the memory process; the memory is divided into three distinct stages of processing: encoding, storage and retrieval. The occurrence of errors is very likely at any particular stage within the memory processing stages. Acquiring information or otherwise known as encoding is illustrated within the Yerkes-Dodson principle which according to its theorists, an increase in arousal improves performance up to a certain point. Once arousal has passed the critical point which is otherwise known as the optimum, performance tends to decline and these results in poorer memory performance. So, in essence when a person is moderately aroused, the information is encoded best as opposed to extreme arousal or stress where the information is lost or encoded insufficiently. The Yerkes-Dodson theory  [23]  demonstrates that if a witness observes a crime that is substantially violent and/or makes the witness experience high levels o f fear and anxiety, they are less likely to remember any significant levels of information because of the extreme stress which results in encoding of information inaccurate. This conclusively makes their eyewitness account unreliable because they fail to remember any substantial amounts of information and detail of what happened and of the perpetrator. The question of witness account accuracy raises questions about whether the time after the incident occurred, if the account is still valid as evidence because quite often, large amounts of time and substantial interference can deteriorate the information from memory. This deterioration refers to the loss of stimulus information as a result of passed time. The amount of time that has lapsed between the occurrence of the event and the questioning and testimony of the witness can quite often determines the amount of information the witness can recall  [24]  . This interference is due to the loss of old stimulus information caused by new stimulus information; this can also reduce the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. People are more likely to overestimate the duration of brief events but on the other hand underestimate the duration of prolonged events (Penrod, Loftus and Winkler, 1982). Other psychological research has demonstrated that the presence of a weapon also reduces the accur acy of eyewitness accounts. Evaluation of Eyewitness Testimony Taking into consideration the flaws in which eyewitness accounts may consist of, which effectively invalidates the testimony, these flaws can be avoided by both the eyewitness and the criminal justice system that use the accounts as a form of evidence. Most importantly, the way in which witness accounts are handled is vital in establishing a valid eyewitness testimony with as much truth as possible. The interviewing process which is conducted by the criminal justice system i.e. police, courtroom judges, need to be done in a careful and delicate way so that there is no decay or deterioration of information. Though the memory of the witnesses may differ, depending on age and memory capacity, quite often the initial first few hours after the occurrence of an incident is vital in collecting as much valid information as possible. So, the interviewing of witnesses should be conducted right after the incident when possible to avoid any decay of information and/or third party interference. In terms of the actual interviewing process, the use of leading questions should entirely be avoided unless the witness has mentioned specific events or descriptions which would not invalidate information as it has been confirmed by the witness. Leading questions  [25]  can quite often add new information that the witness may not have known about and will therefore mention false information in order to fit their account with what is evidently known by the police. Specific questions that can be used in the interviewing process may help the witness to run through their track of events which in some circumstances reveal any recollection of events without any external influence. Quite often through the criminal investigation, the witness needs to be interviewed many times to establish the course of events and important descriptions, whether this is through the crown prosecution trial or by the police. If later eyewitnesses need to be interviewed, they should be able to recall as much information that they reported initially, avoiding any extra information that they may have picked up from third party interference. So in essence, there is no uncertain information but information that the mind has remembered and rehearsed within their memory and indicates a positive recollection of events. Though no control can be given to what eyewitnesses will focus on and concentrate entirely on, measures on how information is collected can partially help to distinguish between valid and false information within accounts. Conclusion It can be concluded that the use of eyewitness testimony will also be used as a vital source of evidence by the criminal justice system for years to come. Eyewitness testimony can hold vital pieces of information that cannot be retrieved from any other source, without eyewitness testimony, the police would find it incredibly difficult to discover any potential clues and evidence of what happened or description of what the perpetrator physically looks like. Criminal cases in which there is not eyewitnesses to give evidence are usually those cases which find it incredibly hard to convict the guilty so have to rely upon other physical evidence such as CCTV, DNA, fingerprints etc. However, the use of eyewitness accounts seems to create a lot of doubt in whether it is a reliable source of evidence to be used because its accuracy is questioned based on interpretation. The use of leading questions and third party interference can decay any initial recollection of events that the eyewitness may have believed to have happened. But the human memory has flaws within itself regardless of extra information that can falsify or invalidate the recollection of what occurred and why. The initial pioneer of evaluating eyewitness evidence, Elizabeth F. Loftus  [26]  highlights the flaws of eyewitness accounts and of the human memory. The conclusions in which Loftus has discovered were advantageously used to improve quality of interviews and valid eyewitness accounts but unfortunately cannot eliminate all invalid information. So, in essence, the question as to whether eyewitness testimony is a reliable source of evidence still remains unclear on the basis that it is vital evidence which is needed to collate important information. However, its reliability is questioned in terms of validity and how much the witness is able to accurately recall all pieces of information especially having experienced high amounts of anxiety and stress. Eyewitness testimony will always remain a vital source of evidence but its use should be delicately considered to avoid any false information or invalid convictions.

Sports Drink and Gatorade

In the summer of 1965, a university football coach began to question why his players were suffering from heat related illnesses. They were drinking plenty of water. University researchers soon discovered that players were losing electrolytes and fluids through their sweat, and water couldn’t replace what they were losing. The researchers took their findings into their lab and began to create a drink that would help the Florida Gators feel rehydrated, replenished, and refueled during their most intense athletic events. That’s exactly what the product now guarantees to achieve-rehydration, replenishment, and refueling. They called this new drink ‘Gatorade’. By 1969, Gatorade was named the official drink of the NFL (History of Gatorade, Retrieved December 2, 2006). Today, Gatorade has reached beyond the narrow market of elite athletes. They have many product lines designed to appease the most particular of sports drinkers. No matter what your gender, your occupation, or your age, they make a drink that you can enjoy. Gatorade has many different product lines within their Thirst Quencher Series. They distribute Gatorade Rain, Frost, Lemonade, Original, X-Factor, Xtremo, and Fierce. Within each of these different sub-categories come many different fruity flavors. Each flavor also ranges from a 12oz bottle-6 pack to a gallon jug. Gatorade also has a line of fitness water called Propel. Any consumer can purchase Propel Fitness Water or Propel Fitness Water with Calcium. Both come in a wide range of flavors similar to those found within the Gatorade Thirst Quencher Series, but with a few more. All purchases range from a 12oz-8 pack to a 1 liter bottle. Now we jump into the Gatorade Performance Series products. This series of products has specially designed formulated nutrition and hydration in order to aid the most intense athletes in their performance. Each product is packed with nutrition in order to replace the electrolytes lost by each athlete through exertion. Gatorade has an energy bar that comes in 2 different flavors, chocolate chip and peanut butter. This 2. 3oz bar is the perfect snack for athletes on the go, or anyone getting ready to do some physical activity for that matter. Then there’s the nutrition shake. This product comes in the obvious flavors, chocolate, strawberry, and vanilla. These 11oz shakes are a perfect way to fill an athlete’s stomach without slowing them down. And last, but not least, there are the Gatorade Performance Series Energy Drinks. These drinks are very similar to those of the Gatorade Thirst Quenchers. However, the Performance Series drinks contain a whopping 200mg of sodium. This is so that electrolytes and body fluids will be replaced within each athlete every time they take a drink. These drinks, however, come in limited flavors and are only available in 12oz bottles (Gatorade Products, Retrieved December 2, 2006). Gatorade has become the most popular sports beverage. It is widely known and is easily distinguishable among its competitors. First of all, its packaging hasn’t changed in years. Gatorade looks the same today as it did a decade ago. Because of this, Gatorade has remained popular and not forgotten. It’s easy for a consumer to remember something that is always there and never changes. Gatorade also remains recognized due to the number of contracts they have with several major sports leagues. As of now, they have contracts with the National Football League, Major League Baseball, National Basketball Association, Women’s National Basketball Association, National Hockey League, United States of America Basketball, Major League Soccer, United States Soccer, Bowl Championship Series, and the Association of Volleyball Professionals (http://www. gatorade. com/athletes/leagues_and_teams/, Retrieved December 2, 2006). The NFL is also known for performing the ‘Gatorade Dunk’. This ritual is performed after a game by the winning team. Players pick up the Gatorade Barrel and dump what’s left over their coach’s head. This gives free publicity because it’s done by the teams without any prompting by Gatorade. Gatorade works on new products all the time. They’ve even created a special lab where their scientists can continually test new products to ensure the safety and abilities of all athletes. The most recent achievement Gatorade has produced is called G. I. D. S. (Gatorade In-car Drinking System). This system was specifically designed for NASCAR drivers. A special pouch, that guarantees to keep any liquid cold for hours, is filled with the driver’s favorite flavor and is then placed in a secure compartment within the vehicle. There is a tube with a special coming from within the pouch and into the driver’s helmet. At the end of the tube is a mouthpiece that is securely fastened to the driver’s mouth. When the driver is ready to take a drink, they bite down on their mouth piece, to open the tube, and push a button, to pump the cold liquid through the tube and into the driver’s mouth. When the driver’s lets go of the mouthpiece the tube closes and the pump automatically reverse pumps the Gatorade back into the pouch in order to stay cold for next time. NASCAR race cars can reach up to 130 degrees and their driver’s can lose up to ten pounds within a single race just by sweating. Gatorade keeps their body temperature down and helps replace the electrolytes and body fluids lost (http://www. gatorade. com/science%5Fand%5Finnovation/product%5Finnovations/gids/ Retrieved December 2, 2006). Product Life Cycle  Gatorade falls within the maturity stage of the Product Life Cycle. I do believe that Gatorade is still growing however its growth has slowed. According to the text, the maturity stage is reached when â€Å"the sales of a generic product category continue to increase (but at a decreasing rate), profits decline largely because of price competition, and some firms leave the market† (Etzel, 674). Table 9. 1 in the text gives another description to help define a products life cycle stage. In order to be in the maturity stage, the product must have a mass market of consumers, which Gatorade does. They have millions of consumers. The competition is somewhat intense and their growth has slowed down. Their profits, however, are still pretty strong. They aren’t as strong as they were in the growth stage, but are still significantly strong. They defend their product against competitors, water being most mentioned when addressing the health of athletes. Gatorade costs have remained stable and their prices are reasonable. If it’s too expensive to buy each drink individually, you can always buy in bulk from a grocery store or a wholesaler like Costco. There is extreme loyalty to Gatorade as well. Because they were the only specialty sport drink when it was created in 1965, they didn’t have to worry about winning their consumers away from a similar product. All the athletes and athletic trainers wanted this drink and became hooked on it after seeing the effect it had. By the time other brands came out everyone knew Gatorade and trusted its products. Most consumers would rather purchase a product they know works than try a new product that claims to do what everyone already knows Gatorade does. So it’s obvious that Gatorade has brand loyalty, another way we know Gatorade has reached the maturity stage. Although they have made to the maturity stage, they still have more growth to obtain. As long as Gatorade continues to produce new products, they will continue to grow. It may not be a quickly as it was when they first introduced themselves in 1965, but they will grow (Etzel, 674). Pricing Gatorade has a very simple pricing strategy. Even though Gatorade is the leader in the sport drink market, they still use the going-rate for their pricing level. The overall market does not have a large difference between competitors so Gatorade prices its products relative to the market pricing structure. An increase in price could lead to a loss in sales because the consumer could start to buy a competitor’s product and have the same relative advantage that Gatorade can provide. This is evident by visiting a local supermarket store. A 20 oz. Gatorade is priced at $1. 59; its main competitor, PowerAde, is priced at the same. It could be said that the market is demonstrating non-price competition (Etzel, 349). Gatorade has chosen market penetration as its pricing strategy (Etzel, 351). Some characteristics of market penetration distinctly describe the market for sport drink. The market has an elastic demand curve and low initial price for new produces (Gatorade has come out with Propel and Fierce, both coming into the market with identical or lower prices than competitors). For consumers that buy Gatorade on a regular basis, it can become an expensive habit compared to some alternatives (I. e. water). One way that a consumer can cut down on prices is by buying in bulk. Consumers will get more Gatorade for their buck when buying in bulk. Other than that, Gatorade does not have any promotions or coupons to induce sales. Distribution â€Å"A distribution channel consists of the set of people and firms involved in the transfer of title to a product as the product moves from producer to ultimate consumer or business user† (Etzel, 380). In short, a distribution channel will show the journey that a product or service takes from the producer to the consumer. It seems that everywhere someone goes, there is Gatorade for sale. How did it get there? PepsiCo. handles all the distribution for Gatorade. They have chosen to go with direct-store-distribution (DSD) (Annual Report of PepsiCo, Retrieved December 1, 2006). One advantage of DSD that PepsiCo. uses is having their delivery teams merchandise their product. This allows them to display Gatorade in a way that will induce high sales. A way they attempt to increase sales is by placing Gatorade in places that will influence impulse purchases (placing Gatorade by checkout stands at a supermarket is an example). Their retail stores are the middlemen for Gatorade’s journey to its consumers (Etzel, 379). This is what is called indirect distribution (Etzel, 384). Supermarkets are not the only place where Gatorade can be found; Gatorade is available for sales in liquor stores, department stores, supermarkets, and any place where drinks are sold. Since Gatorade is available in such a wide variety of places, Gatorade can be categorized as being intensively distributed (which means a â€Å"producer sells its product through every available outlet in a market where a consumer might reasonable look for it†) (Etzel, 393). Gatorade has been the staple in the sport drink market. Their overwhelming consistent market share can point to a strong assumption that their distribution channel is at peak efficiency. Promotional Mix Within Gatorades promotional mix, advertising probably uses the most funds on an annual basis. PepsiCo spent 183 million dollars for Gatorade’s advertising campaigns in 2005 which is a large increase compared to the 135 million dollars spent only two years before (Hein & Beirne, 6). The most common form of advertising for Gatorade is TV commercials (MacArthur, 51). There are four main types of advertising campaigns on television. The first type highlights the history and origins of the company as well as the scientific research that goes into the product. The second type highlights individual players that endorse Gatorade or groups of competing individuals. The third type highlights teams or leagues that Gatorade sponsors such as the NFL or the Men’s National Soccer Team (MacArthur, 22). Professional endorsements are also important to Gatorade’s advertising campaign. They endorse twenty-two professional American athletes and over twenty international athletes (MacArthur, 22). Equally important to Gatorade’s promotional mix is their public relations. They sponsor ten professional leagues. Among the list are some of the most popular sports in America such as the NFL, MLB, NBA, NHL and MLS. They also affiliate themselves with 60 division one universities and 11 division one conferences. In addition to this they are affiliated to eleven professional organizations such as the American College of Sports Medicine (MacArthur, 22). Their Outstanding Player of the Year program is another way that they can reach out and recognize many outstanding high school athletes of the year around the country. This is a large program that has a state and national selection process. There is one winner for each sport. For example, Peyton Manning was the national winner for football in 93-94 (Gatorade in the Community, Retrieved December 3, 2006). Gatorade makes a large international public relations effort. They are affiliated with many international professional soccer clubs such as Juventus and Manchester United but they extend their efforts to other sports besides soccer such as basketball, water polo, rugby, volleyball, and swimming (Hein, 5). The Gatorade Sports Science Institute is another effect tool for their public relations campaign. Through this organization they put out study results from a wide range of sport related topics and on the dynamics of specific sports. This part of Gatorade is most easily accessed through their own GSSI website (www. gatorade. com). The Gatorade website is another address that is very well done and depicts a very good image of the company. They also have 12 other country specific websites that are in the domestic language of the country. Sales promotions are also important to Gatorade’s promotional mix and it is substantially occupied by event sponsorships. Most of these events are marathons throughout the world including the famous Boston Marathon and the Gatorade Triathlon Series (Hein, 5). At these events they provide free Gatorade to the competitors throughout the race and for some events they offer the Gatorade Recovery Area where all competitors can be weighed before and after the race to monitor the level of fluids lost during exercise. The area later supplies food/refreshment bags, Gatorade drinks, massage and qualified dietitians (Hein, 5). To supplement this, they also print newsletters about upcoming events. The Annual Gatorade Junior Training Camp is another example of sponsoring athletic events. This is a summer camp that combines football instruction and teaching of life skills that focus on self-improvement and motivation and is hosted by the Seattle Seahawks (Gatorade in the Community, Retrieved December 3, 2006). Limited to the Canadian website, there is a direct link to request Gatorade to sponsor an event. This all leads to the conclusion that event sponsorship is a highly used tool for Gatorade to get its product out and into the hands of many athletes. Gatorade doesn’t use many discount sales promotions in the United States but does use promotions in a number of other countries. Last summer there was a big Indian promotion in which customers who bought the six pack received an instructional soccer CD with Rinaldinho (Buy 6 Gatorades, Win Ronaldinho CD). A number of European countries are having soccer promotions as well (Gatorade e lo Sport, Retrieved December 3, 2006). Canada is having a hockey promotion in which consumers have a chance to win professional hockey gear. I suspect that Gatorade also uses a number of sales promotions directed at their retailers; otherwise we wouldn’t see the large discounts that cut the price of Gatorade by almost in half in some of the large supermarkets.

Laboratory by Christopher Carroll

The book â€Å"Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory† by Christopher Carroll provides true nature, exact details and thoroughly examined and checked history of Plum Island. It is necessary to outline that findings presented in the book significantly contribute the evidence that government does have many secrets and doesn’t want them to be revealed. Thus the author appears to be a real pioneer revealing shocking facts and true facts about the island and serious diseases. The author is rather persuasive, because he uses logical arguments, conclusions and facts to defend his position. The narrative of the book flows smoothly and follows chronological order. Thus it is apparent that Carroll has succeeded both as pioneer of the problem and as talented writer. (Carroll 2004) The author shows in the book that Plum Island â€Å"on the edge of the largest population center in the United States is a ticking biological time bomb that none of us can safely ignore†. (Carroll 2004) It is necessary to mention that the book bases its evidence on the innumerable number of government documents, in-depth interviews with people and certainly access to Plum Island itself. In the beginning Carroll admits that â€Å"this is an eye-opening, suspenseful account of a federal government germ laboratory gone terribly wrong†. (Carroll 2004) Therefore, the author leads readers through secret world presenting horrifying revelations such as seriously infected workers, outbreaks of viruses, biological meltdowns, etc. The author is really outrageous with the fact that infected workers were refused to be assisted in diagnosis by Plum Island brass. Further, the author proves that the area waters are highly contaminated with periodic flushing of raw sewage. Moreover, Carroll finds associations between the outbreak of deadly West Nile virus in 1999 and Lyme disease in Plum Island. Actually the book is through exploration of the secret world of bacteria, viruses and microbiology. Carroll illustrates how the Department of Agriculture in the USA runs the Plum Island for last fifty years and states that that is â€Å"far more than wholesome grade-A eggs and the food pyramid†. (Carroll 2004) It is necessary to note that author provides new and original overview of the Island stating that is exists in the age of bioterrosism because of improper policy of the Department of Homeland Security. The book is interested in safety and security and thus it calls for action in order to show protest from biological catastrophes for future generations. Actually â€Å"Lab 257† provides new understanding of Plum Island and calls it â€Å"a biological Three Mile Island†. It is known that since 1950 this place is of great interest for researching animal diseases. Plenty of outrageous and disturbing events and news are revealed in the book involving escaped germs and lax security as well as sewage pills. Carroll thinks that some of the found viruses are potent bioterrorist weapons and thus the access to them should be limited. And it is Christopher Carroll who touches this problem for the first time. (Carroll 2004) The author believes that it is his task to reveal the secret and scandal-hidden history of the Plum Islands, because, according to his mind, the nation should be aware of horrors taking place there. Nevertheless, some moments in the book are tangled. The book reveals lots of talks with past and current workers, â€Å"filing Freedom of Information Act applications to get classified material and visiting the island itself six times†.   (Carroll 2004) The history of Plum Island is traced from its very beginning as a research facility for warfare of germs till its becoming a part of the Department of Agriculture. The author involves in the books descriptions of not only mysterious island, but also descriptions of animal diseases, bio-warfare researches, etc. He states that the island has relived the very top of its researches as well as its fall. Nowadays the island is a run-down and dangerous place with â€Å"little in the way of security, even after the events of 9/11 put the island under the watch of the Department of Homeland Security†. (Carroll 2004) US Department of Agriculture has done certain significant work in order to protect livestock of America. For example, the scientists are responsible for creating the first vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease. Carroll states that positive moments can’t exist without negative consequences and thus he says that the Department has done their best to hide the breakdowns of researches.   Thus the successful researches are plagued and since 1970s have been seriously criticized. Despite certain successful discoveries, negative effects are apparent: leaking air filters, escaping sewage, etc. what is more awful is that outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease is caused by lab's herds. It is argued in the book that â€Å"things recently went from bad to worse when many of the jobs were privatized, leading to dangerous cost-cutting†. (Carroll 2004) Further, it is necessary to mention Carroll’s recounting of the Hurricane Bob on the Island. Thus Carroll possibly hints that â€Å"the storm unleashed a doomsday scenario – one that never actually materialized†. (Carroll 2004) However, the thinks that Hurricane has positive impact compared with other outrageous revelations. Carroll assumes that scientists are responsible for setting loose the Lyme disease as well as Nile virus in 1991. Furthermore, they are to blame for new scourges taken place in the United States of America. The evidence in the book is presented by Carroll’s personal observations and investigations. Special attention in the book is paid to Lyme disease. For example, the author hints that â€Å"the Nazis experimented on Lyme disease as a weapon of germ warfare, and that after World War II; one German researcher had some dealings with the founders of Plum Island†. (Carroll 2004) Scientists in the Plum Island are though to have studied tick-borne diseases. Firstly, the disease was revealed in Lyme, Conn, in 1970s. Scientists thought hat it was caused by either deer or birds carried Lyme-infected ticks. Plum Island is situated near the Lyme and thus it is infected as well. However, other evidence suggests that bacteria caused Lyme disease has existed in American forests even before the scientists appeared in Plum Island. Factually, it is indicated that â€Å"these bacteria probably evolved in North America and only later spread to Europe†. (Carroll 2004) However, Michael Carroll mocks at the provided idea of possible Lyme history, but â€Å"the fact is that many diseases have made this sort of crossover into humans†.   He thinks if to disturb the ecosystems, the parasites are sometimes pushed out to make humans their own home. For example, malaria was a serious scourge many years ago, but then the first African farmer made an attempt to clear the forests and to create â€Å"homes† for parasites – he decoded to breed mosquitoes. Further, HIV is chimpanzee viruses which have got into bloodstreams of human in 20th century because of slaughter of chimps for meat. Thus Carroll asserts that the gravest danger nowadays is bioterrorim, because it is able to create many diseases. Bioterrorism involves climate change, globalization and deforestation. Therefore, the author thinks that Plum Island is necessary place, because SARS and anthrax have to be defeated. Thus the lab has to be kept safe and secure. (Carroll 2004) No unturned stone is left in the book â€Å"Lab 257†. The author thoroughly investigates the Plum Island’ history and illustrates workings of the lab. Special attention is paid to operations on Plum Island.   The strength of the book is a variety of information gathered from different sources ranging from interviews with employees to appropriate government agencies. Carroll skillfully assembles all the materials into research being easily readable and remarkable. Carroll is certainly talented researcher and writer and his book is one of the most shocking pieces of non-fiction. The author thinks that media will become interested in his â€Å"chilling expose of a potential catastrophe† and thus government will be forced to take measures to provide sanitary and safe conditions. (Carroll 2004) If government pays no attention to the problem, people will be threatened to become new victims. Summing up the material provided it is necessary to admit that Carroll has managed to meet with many people who have made the Plum Island: researchers, scientists, present and pass employees, animal handlers, etc. Furthermore, people â€Å"of the surrounding areas who never wanted the lab facility there in the first place† are also involved in the book narrative. (Carroll 2004) The author provides strong evidence of serious breaches of protection and security and states that such ignorance may lead to viruses’ releases. The consequences would be apparent: devastation of forests and spreading of diseases. It is known that many workers in the island are ill will diseases which are still unidentified by any doctor. Furthermore, the book is filled with suggestions that â€Å"West Nile Virus and other such diseases were actually introduced to U.S. soil via Plum Island†. (Carroll 2004) Thus mishaps could have been responsible for spreading of anthrax, mad cow disease and Rift Valley fever viruses. Carroll also admits that terrorist could have bee provided with lots of opportunities to easily access the island because of improper security systems. Carroll provides evidence that release of deadly viruses and toxins is caused by mishaps on the island. Thus the author concludes that humans nowadays are not safe at all. (Carroll 2004) References Carroll, Michael C. (2004).Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory. New York: William Morrow.   

Literary Analysis Of The Great Gatsby - 1787 Words

The Great Gatsby, published in 1925, is hailed as masterpiece of American fictions of its time. It is noted for the remarkable way its author captures a cross-section of American society during the 1920s. The author, F. Scott Fitzgerald offers up a commentary on the American society of which he was a part. He successfully encapsulates the mood of a generation during a politically and socially crucial and chaotic period of American history. In fact, The Great Gatsby is a brilliant piece of English literature offering a vivid peek into American life in the 1920s. Fitzgerald carefully sets up his novel into distinct groups but, in the end, each group has its own problems to contend with, leaving a powerful reminder of what a precarious place†¦show more content†¦The American Dream- that one can lead from rags to riches - has been a core facet of American identity since its inception. However, The Great Gatsby shows how this automatic shift is a symbol of the corruption of the A merican Dream; it was no longer a vision of building a decent life, but rather just about getting rich. The main plot-line of the novel reflects this assessment, as Gatsby’s dream of loving Daisy is ruined by the difference in their respective social status; his resorting to crime to make enough money to impress her, and the rampant materialism that characterizes her lifestyle are all examples of the corrupted American Dream. Furthermore, all of the characters in the novel can be said to be empty beyond just their lust for money. That is to say that The Great Gatsby is nothing but a romance of money. Money is at the heart of the book and is what gives its hero the foolish idea that he could buy the love of Daisy Buchanan . But the worst qualities of the modern American Dream are represented in Tom and Daisy Buchanan. They live without any hopes or regrets because the foundation of their character is money and prosperity. Nick describes Buchanan`s as such: â€Å"They were car eless people, Tom and Daisy- They smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness, or whatever it wasShow MoreRelatedLiterary Analysis Of The Great Gatsby 1673 Words   |  7 PagesApril 2015 Literary Analysis of The Great Gatsby Dreams are a compelling force in people’s lives. They are what propel them forward each and every day in an effort to reach something better. The American Dream has been sought after by millions all over the world for hundreds of years. This country was founded on the belief that anyone could achieve their dreams. However, in the 1920s these hopes and aspirations began to splinter until they ultimately shattered. In the novel, The Great Gatsby, F. ScottRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Great Gatsby 1490 Words   |  6 PagesJaylinn Cooper Mrs. Fowler English III March 3, 2017 Literary Analysis of The Great Gatsby The 1920s in America, known as the Roaring Twenties, was a time of celebration after a destructive war. It was a period of time in America characterised by prosperity and optimism. There was a general feeling of disruption associated with modernity and a break with traditions.The Roaring Twenties was a time of great economic prosperity and many people became rich and wealthy. Some people inherited oldRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Great Gatsby1142 Words   |  5 PagesLiterary Analysis of The Great Gatsby Literature is medium that allows authors to express personal beliefs and value to others in a variety of ways. Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, regarded as one of the best writers in America, wrote The Great Gatsby to convey his perception of American society in the early 20th century. Fitzgerald uses a specific orientation of storytelling to render his purpose of writing the novel. The Great Gatsby revolves around Jay Gatsby. His mysterious background and behaviorRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Great Gatsby Essay1898 Words   |  8 PagesSameet K. Mann Ms. Rowe IB English 7 September 2016 Literary Analysis: The American Dream The century old concept of the American Dream is the belief that no matter what race, gender, religion or background a person is from, she/he has the ability to become successful through the means of hard work and determination. Unlike today, Americans during the 1920s lived in the illusion that achieving the American Dream involved immoral actions and only the satisfaction of their greedy pleasures. ThisRead MoreLiterary Analysis : The Great Gatsby1806 Words   |  8 Pages Literary analysis: The Great Gatsby To truly achieve The American Dream is nearly impossible without personal sacrifice, as evidenced by The Great Gatsby by F. Scott. Fitzgerald. As the characters, especially Gatsby himself, eventually learn, there is no way to make the fantasy of a perfect life a reality. There are ways to imitate the results, such hiding one’s true self from others, as Gatsby attempts with Nick, or an all-encompassing devotion to one thing or person, as if that thing or personRead MoreThe Great Gatsby Literary Analysis1049 Words   |  5 PagesLama 1 Verdiana Lama Mr.Joannes ENG 4UN July 18, 2017 Money gets to your head The pressures of social class tend to give us an urgency to act a certain way. In The Great Gatsby by F.Scott Fitzgerald, He carefully sets up his novel into wonderful agencies but, in the long run, every group has its personal issues to take care of, leaving a powerful reminder of what a precarious region the world truly is. By creating awesome social instructions which include new moneyRead MoreThe Great Gatsby Literary Analysis741 Words   |  3 Pagesâ€Å"The Great Gatsby† by F. Scott Fitzgerald was on the the greatest pieces of American literature ever constructed. F. Scott Fitzgerald is considered one of the five greatest authors in American history. His Book â€Å"The Great Gatsby† was named the third most important book in American literature. An article by John A. Pidgeon it says â€Å"I am absolutely convinced that â€Å"The Great Gatsby† is one of the finest of american literature†(Pidgeon) â€Å"The Great Gatsby† is clearly a highly thought of piece of literatureRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald2128 Words   |  9 PagesLiterary Analysis of The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald The Great Gatsby is an incredible novel written in 1925 by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a prolific American author, and published by Scribner’s. Nevertheless, during its first release, the book sold poorly and received mixed reviews. In fact, Fitzgerald died in 1940 considering himself and his works a failure. However, the onset of the Second World War revived the novel, which later became an essential component of high school curricula and differentRead Moresparknotes vs cliffnotes830 Words   |  4 Pagesunderstanding the literary elements, character developments, and plot development that a author uses to help create the story. Both sites provide similar information, ranging from overall plot summaries and character analysis, but Sparknotes goes more into the literary aspect of the book, while cliffnotes focuses more on the character and his motives. In analyzing Jay Gatsby, Cliffnotes focuses much more on Gatsby himself and his underlying motives to his character, like â€Å"In assessing Gatsby, one must examineRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald921 Words   |  4 Pagesof The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald relays the first encounter with the protagonist of the novel, and is also were his use of literary techniques emotionally involves the reader whilst effectively telling the story so brilliantly. Also his varied use of diverse methods of structure and form, than what has been previously seen in his commentaries, allows the readers to explore the events of the naive narrator, Nick, with other people other than the materialistic and drunk lifestyle that Gatsby and his